Хром
Хром (Cr), химический элемент VI группы периодической системы Менделеева. Относится к переходным металлом с атомным номером 24 и атомной массой 51,996. В переводе с греческого, название металла означает «цвет». Такому названию металл обязан разнообразной цветовой гамме, которая присуща его различным соединениям.
Физические характеристики хрома
Металл обладает достаточной твердостью и хрупкостью одновременно. По шкале Мооса твердость хрома оценивается в 5,5. Этот показатель означает, что хром имеет максимальную твердость из всех известных на сегодня металлов, после урана, иридия, вольфрама и бериллия. Для простого вещества хрома характерен голубовато-белый окрас.
Атомный номер | 24 |
Атомная масса | 51,996 |
Плотность, кг/м³ | 7190 |
Температура плавления, °С | 1856 |
Теплоемкость, кДж/(кг·°С) | 0,46 |
Электроотрицательность | 1,6 |
Ковалентный радиус, Å | 1,18 |
1-й ионизац. потенциал, эв | 6,76 |
Металл не относится к редким элементам. Его концентрация в земной коре достигает 0,02% масс. долей. В чистом виде хром не встречается никогда. Он содержится в минералах и рудах, которые являются главным источником добычи металла. Хромит (хромистый железняк, FeO*Cr2O3) считается основным соединением хрома. Еще одним достаточно распространенным, однако менее важным минералом, является крокоит PbCrO4.
Металл легко поддается плавке при температуре 19070С (21800К или 34650F). При температуре в 26720С – закипает. Атомная масса металла составляет 51,996 г/моль.
Хром является уникальным металлом благодаря своим магнитным свойствам. В условиях комнатной температуры ему присуще антиферромагнитное упорядочение, в то время, как другие металлы обладают им в условиях исключительно пониженных температур. Однако, если хром нагреть выше 370С, физические свойства хрома изменяются. Так, существенно меняется электросопротивление и коэффициент линейного расширения, модуль упругости достигает минимального значения, а внутреннее трение значительно увеличивается. Такое явление связано с прохождением точки Нееля, при которой антиферромагнитные свойства материала способны изменяться на парамагнитные. Это означает, что первый уровень пройден, и вещество резко увеличилось в объеме.
Строение хрома представляет собой объемно-центрированную решетку, благодаря которой металл характеризуется температурой хрупко-вязкого периода. Однако, в случае с данным металлом, огромное значение имеет степень чистоты, поэтому, величина находится в пределах -500С - +3500С. Как показывает практика, раскристаллизированный металл не имеет никакой пластичности, но мягкий отжиг и формовка делают его ковким.
Химические свойства хрома
Атом имеет следующую внешнюю конфигурацию: 3d54s1. Как правило, в соединениях хром имеет следующие степени окисления: +2, +3, +6, среди которых наибольшую устойчивость проявляет Сr3+.Кроме этого существуют и другие соединения, в которых хром проявляет совершенно иную степень окисления, а именно: +1, +4, +5.
Металл не отличается особой химической активностью. Во время нахождения хрома в обычных условиях, металл проявляет устойчивость к влаге и кислороду. Однако, данная характеристика не относится к соединению хрома и фтора – CrF3, которое при воздействии температур, превышающих 6000С, взаимодействует с парами воды, образуя в результате реакции Сr2О3, а также азотом, углеродом и серой.
Во время нагревания металлического хрома, он взаимодействует с галогенами, серой, кремнием, бором, углеродом, а также некоторыми другими элементами, в результате чего получаются следующие химические реакции хрома:
Cr + 2F2 = CrF4 (с примесью CrF5)
2Cr + 3Cl2 = 2CrCl3
2Cr + 3S = Cr2S3
Хроматы можно получить, если нагреть хром с расплавленной содой на воздухе, нитратами или хлоратами щелочных металлов:
2Cr + 2Na2CO3 + 3O2 = 2Na2CrO4 + 2CO2.
Хром не обладает токсичностью, чего нельзя сказать о некоторых его соединениях. Как известно, пыль данного металла, при попадании в организм, может раздражать легкие, через кожу она не усваивается. Но, поскольку в чистом виде он не встречается, то его попадание в человеческий организм является невозможным.
Трехвалентный хром попадает в окружающую среду во время добычи и переработки хромовой руды. В человеческий организм попадание хрома вероятно в виде пищевой добавки, используемой в программах по похудению. Хром с валентностью, равной +3, является активным участником синтеза глюкозы. Ученые установили, что излишнее употребление хрома особого вреда человеческому организму не наносит, поскольку не происходит его всасывание, однако, он способен накапливаться в организме.
Соединения, в котором участвует шестивалентный металл, являются крайне токсичными. Вероятность их попадания в человеческий организм появляется во время производства хроматов, хромирования предметов, во время проведения некоторых сварочных работ. Попадание такого хрома в организм чревато серьезными последствиями, так как соединения, в которых присутствует шестивалентный элемент, представляют собой сильные окислители. Поэтому, могут вызвать кровотечение в желудке и кишечнике, иногда с прободением кишечника. При попадании таких соединений на кожу возникают сильные химические реакции в виде ожогов, воспалений, возникновения язв.
В зависимости от качества хрома, которое необходимо получить на выходе, существует несколько способов производства металла: электролизом концентрированных водных растворов оксида хрома, электролизом сульфатов, а также восстановлением оксидом кремния. Однако, последний способ не очень популярен, так как при нем на выходе получается хром с огромным количеством примесей. Кроме того, он также является экономически невыгодным.
Степень окисления | Оксид | Гидроксид | Характер | Преобладающие формы в растворах | Примечания |
+2 | CrO (чёрный) | Cr(OH)2 (желтый) | Основный | Cr2+ (соли голубого цвета) | Очень сильный восстановитель |
+3 |
Cr2O3 (зелёный) | Cr(OH)3 (серо-зеленый) | Амфотерный |
Cr3+ (зеленые или лиловые соли) |
|
+4 | CrO2 | не существует | Несолеобразующий | - |
Встречается редко, малохарактерна |
+6 | CrO3 (красный) |
H2CrO4 |
Кислотный |
CrO42- (хроматы, желтые) |
Переход зависит от рН среды. Сильнейший окислитель, гигроскопичен, очень ядовит. |
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Если вы задумываетесь о сотрудничестве с Esperio, то ознакомьтесь предварительно с этим обзором. Брокер заявляет о себе, как об одном из лучших на рынке. Однако наше мнение по этому вопросу противоположное. Мы проведем подробный анализ предложений этой компании и изучим отзывы трейдеров, чтобы определить, насколько ей можно доверять.
О компании
Официальное название: Esperio;
Адрес, контакты: First St. Vincent Bank Ltd Building, James Street, Kingstown, Сент-Винсент и Гренадины;
Лицензия: нет;
Как давно на рынке: с 2021;
Услуги: трейдинг;
Условия: леверидж до 1:1000, нет ограничений по минимальному депозиту;
Торговый терминал: MetaTrader 4/5;
Активы: контракты на разницу цен.
Самые свежие отзывы о Esperio со всего интернета
Несмотря на почти что вдохновляющее название, брокер не особо смог заслужить похвалу от трейдеров, особенно российских. Впрочем, судя по официальному сайту, именно на них он и ориентируется.
Итак, автор с ником MEMFIS1990 уверяет, что никому не удастся заработать с этим брокером. Согласно его комментарию, Esperio просто не выводит деньги. Мужчина уверяет, что все положительные отзывы на официальном сайте компании — фейковые. Он советует трейдерам работать только с проверенными брокерами, а не ноунеймами.
Следующий автор с ником Raspop нашел только один положительный момент у этого брокера. В отзыве он упоминает, что Esperio не скрывает отрицательной доходности по своим портфелям. В остальном мужчина тоже не советует связываться с этой компанией. Как минимум, потому что она мало кому известна и не регулируется авторитетными надзорными органами.
Не все трейдеры оказали столь осторожными, чтобы не торговать с Esperio. Автор следующего отзыва потерял 2 тысячи долларов на этой платформе. Он пополнял счет через систему WebMoney. К сожалению, обращение к юристам не решило вопрос, процедура чарджбэка в этом случае оказалась недоступной. Клиенту пришлось смириться с потерей, так как все его обращения Esperio все равно проигнорировал.
Еще одна девушка вообще описывает в отзыве порядок работы Esperio. Александра утверждает, что представители компании ищут потенциальных клиентов в социальных сетях. Изначально будущим жертвам предлагают работу, а именно, простое заполнение Excel таблиц. Потом их уговаривают приобрести курс обучения не менее чем за 50 тысяч рублей, и, наконец, самим начать торговлю на платформе Esperio. Естественно, все заканчивается сразу после пополнения. Аналитики, советующие открывать сделки, скорее рано, чем поздно, загоняют депозит трейдера в ноль.
Подтверждает слова Александры Виктория. Она называет Esperio самым ужасным местом работы. Девушка пишет в отзыве, что после месяца оплачиваемой стажировки ей, в конце концов, ничего не перечислили. Зато она регулярно терпела оскорбления от руководства. Виктория не скрывает, что главной ее обязанностью был холодный обзвон и развод людей на деньги.
Признаки обмана, мошенничества
Когда реальные отзывы настолько отличаются от тех, что брокер размещает на своем официальном сайте, вывод очевиден. Вряд ли перед нами честный и прозрачный посредник. К тому же, мы нашли и другие спорные моменты.
Срок существования проекта
Трейдеров пытаются убедить в том, что Esperio появился в отрасли еще в 2012 году. Это утверждение можно прочесть в коротком описании самой компании, и заметить в футере сайта. Однако ничего общего с реальным положением вещей такие заявления не имеют. В отзывах авторы пишут об отсутствии узнаваемости бренда не просто так. До недавнего времени о таком посреднике никто не знал.
Данные веб-архива показывают, что брокер занял сайт в июне 2021 года. В самом деле, сложно представить, чтобы за 10 лет работы действительно надежный брокер так и остался для большинства трейдеров неузнаваемым.
Регистрация
С юридическими данными у Esperio вообще произошла какая-то путаница. Брокер указывает в качестве управляющей компании некую OFG Cap LTD. При этом в реестр Сент-Винсент и Гренадин она должна быть внесена под номером 20603. Разумеется, мы не нашли ни одного упоминания о таком наборе цифр.
Но хотя бы OFG Cap, правда, не LTD, а LLC все-таки существует. Кстати, она была инкорпорирована в 2022 году, даже позже, чем появился официальный сайт. Уж совсем никак не в 2012. В футере указана недостоверная информация.
Добавить ко всему перечисленному стоит и то, что гренадинский офшор — не самое лучшее место в мире для регистрации бизнеса. Вернее, для мошенников, конечно, сойдет. А вот у клиентов, особенно трейдеров, могут возникнуть существенные проблемы при сотрудничестве с такими компаниями.
Отсутствие документов
Назваться брокером недостаточно. Esperio было бы неплохо еще получить официальное разрешение на свою деятельность. Но Сент-Винсент и Гренадины как раз предпочитают те посредники, которым не хочется думать о лицензиях. FSA (регулятор в этой юрисдикции) не выдает подобным онлайн дилинговым центрам лицензии. И вообще он не ведет никакого надзора за их деятельностью.
На главной странице регулятора так и написано, что внесение в реестр — это не гарантия хорошей репутации компании. Российский Центробанк, например, вообще заблокировал сайт Esperio и внес фирму в черный список.
Выводы
Esperio зарегистрирован в офшорной зоне Сент-Винсент и Гренадин, что означает отсутствие контроля со стороны государственных органов. Кроме того, у него нет лицензии на осуществление брокерской деятельности. Торговать на таких площадках не стоит. Это легко обернется потерей капитала.
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I'm trying to sell my house fast in Colorado and I was wondering if anyone had any tips or suggestions on how to do it quickly and efficiently? I've already tried listing it on some popular real estate websites, but I haven't had much luck yet.
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Thanks in advance!
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